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  • DISCOVERY’S ON BRAIN

Discovery’s on Human brain


The human brain is the main organ of the human nervous system. It is located in the head, protected by the skull. It has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but with a more developed Human brain and skullcerebral cortex. Large animals such as whales and elephants have larger brains in absolute terms, but when measured using a measure of relative brain size, which compensates for body size, the quotient for the human brain is almost twice as large as that of a bottlenose dolphin, and three times as large as that of a chimpanzee. Much of the size of the human brain comes from the cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes, which are associated with executive functions such as self-control,planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The area of the cerebral cortex devoted to vision, the visual cortex, is also greatly enlarged in humans compared to other animals. The human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of neural tissue that covers most of the brain. This layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface that can fit into the volume available. The pattern of folds is similar across individuals, although there are many small variations. The cortex is divided into four lobes – the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. (Some classification systems also include alimbic lobe and treat the insular cortex as a lobe.) Within each lobe are numerous cortical areas, each associated with a particular function, including vision, motor control, and language. The left and right sides of the cortex are broadly similar in shape, and most cortical areas are replicated on both sides. Some areas, though, show strong lateralization, particularly areas that are involved in language. In most people, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, with the right hemisphere playing only a minor role. There are other functions, such as visual-spatial ability, for which the right hemisphere is usually dominant. Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the human brain is susceptible to damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such as a blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a variety of chemicals which can act as neurotoxins, such as ethanol alcohol. Infection of the brain, though serious, is rare because of the biological barriers which protect it. The human brain is also suscep tible to degenerative disorders, such asParkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s diseaseCerebral lobes, (mostly as the result of aging) and multiple sclerosis. A number of psychiatric conditions, such asschizophrenia and clinical depression, are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of these is not well understood. The brain can also be the site of brain tumors and these can be benign or malignant. There are some techniques for studying the brain that are used in other animals that are just not suitable for use in humans and vice versa. It is easier to obtain individual brain cells taken from other animals, for study. It is also possible to use invasive techniques in other animals such as inserting electrodes into the brain or disabling certains parts of the brain in order to examine the effects on behaviour – techniques that are not possible to be used in humans. However, only humans can respond to complex verbal instructions or be of use in the study of important brain functions such as language and other complex cognitive tasks, but studies from humans and from other animals, can be of mutual help. Medical imaging technologies such as functional neuroimaging and EEG recordings are important techniques in studying the brain. The complete functional understanding of the human brain is an ongoing challenge for neuroscience.

Structure


The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.3–1.4 kg (2.9–3.1 lb), or about 2% of total body weight,with a volume of around 1130 cubic centimetres (cm3) in women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial individual variation.Neurological differences between the sexes have not been shown to correlate in any simple way with IQ or other measures of cognitive performance. The human brain is composed of neurons, glial cells, and blood vessels. The number of neurons, according to array tomography, has been shown to be on average about 86 billion in the adult male human brain with a roughly equal number of non-neuronal cells. Out of these, 16 billion (or 19% of all brain neurons) are located in the cerebral cortex (including subcortical white matter), 69 billion (or 80% of all brain neurons) are in the cerebellum, and fewer than 1% of all brain neurons are located in the rest of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres (the cerebrum) form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer (the cerebral cortex) which has a convoluted topography.[6] Underneath the cerebrum lies the brainstem, resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is thecerebellum, a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface, the cerebellar cortex, that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although they vary considerably in relative size. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost perfectly smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human. The living brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to soft gelatin or soft tofu. Although referred to as grey matter, the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior.

General Features


The human brain has many properties that are common to all vertebrate brains, including a basic division into three parts called theforebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, with interconnected fluid-filled ventricles, and a set of generic vertebrate brain structures including themedulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem, the cerebellum, optic tectum, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb, and many others. As a mammalian brain, the human brain has special features that are common to all mammalian brains, most notably a six-layeredcerebral cortex and a set of structures associated with it, including the hippocampus and amygdala. All vertebrates have a forebrain whose upper surface is covered with a layer of neural tissue called the pallium, but in all except mammals the pallium has a relatively simple three-layered cell structure. In mammals it has a much more complex six-layered cell structure, and is given a different name, the cerebral cortex. The hippocampus and amygdala also originate from the pallium, but are much more complex in mammals than in other vertebrates. As a primate brain, the human brain has a much larger cerebral cortex, in proportion to body size, than most mammals, and a very highly developed visual system. The shape of the brain within the skull is also altered somewhat as a consequence of the upright position in which primates hold their heads. As a hominid brain, the human brain is substantially enlarged even in comparison to the brain of a typical monkey. The sequence of evolution from Australopithecus (four million years ago) to Homo sapiens (modern man) was marked by a steady increase in brain size, particularly in the frontal lobes, which are associated with a variety of high-level cognitive functions. Humans and other primates have some differences in gene sequence, and genes are differentially expressed in many brain regions. The functional differences between the human brain and the brains of other animals also arise from many gene–environment interactions.

Cerebral Cortex


The dominant feature of the human brain is corticalization. The cerebral cortex in humans is so large that it overshadows every other part of the brain.A few subcortical structures show alterations reflecting this trend. The cerebellum, for example, has a medial zone connected mainly to subcortical motor areas, and a lateral zone connected primarily to the cortex. In humans the lateral zone takes up a much larger fraction of the cerebellum than in most other mammalian species. Corticalization is reflected in function as well as structure. In a rat, surgical removal of the entire cerebral cortex leaves an animal that is still capable of walking around and interacting with the environment. In a human, comparable cerebral cortex damage produces a permanent state of coma. The amount of association cortex, relative to the other two categories of sensory and motor, increases dramatically as one goes from simpler mammals, such as the rat and the cat, to more complex ones, such as the chimpanzee and the human. A gene present in the human genome but not in the chimpanzee (ArhGAP11B) seems to play a major role in corticalization. ArhGAP11B and human encephalisation The cerebral cortex is essentially a sheet of neural tissue, folded in a way that allows a large surface area to fit within the confines of the skull. When unfolded, each cerebral hemisphere has a total surface area of about 1.3 square feet (0.12 m2). Each cortical ridge is called a gyrus, and each groove or fissure separating one gyrus from another is called a sulcus.

Cortical Divisions


The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetrical with left and right hemispheres that are approximate mirror images of each other. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four “lobes”, the frontal lobe,parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. With one exception, this division into lobes does not derive from the structure of the cortex, though the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them, the frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, and occipital bone. The borders between lobes lie beneath the sutures that link the skull bones together. The exception is the border between the frontal and parietal lobes, which lies behind the corresponding suture; instead it follows the anatomical boundary of the central sulcus, a deep fold in the brain’s structure where the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex meet. Because of the arbitrary way most of the borders between lobes are demarcated, they have little functional significance. With the exception of the occipital lobe, a small area that is entirely dedicated to vision, each of the lobes contains a variety of brain areas that have minimal functional relationship. The parietal lobe, for example, contains areas involved in somatosensation, hearing, language, attention, and spatial cognition. In spite of this heterogeneity, the division into lobes is convenient for reference. The main functions of the frontal lobe are to control attention, abstract thinking, behavior, problem solving tasks, and physical reactions and personality. The occipital lobe is the smallest lobe; its main functions are visual reception, visual-spatial processing, movement, and color recognition. The temporal lobe controls auditory and visual memories, language, and some hearing and speech. Although there are enough variations in the shape and placement of gyri and sulci (cortical folds) to make every brain unique, most human brains show sufficiently consistent patterns of folding that allow them to be named. Many of the gyri and sulci are named according to the location on the lobes or other major folds on the cortex. These include:
• Superior,Middle, Inferior frontal gyrus: in reference to the frontal lobe
• Medial longitudinal fissure, which separates the left and rightcerebral hemispheres
• Precentraland Postcentral sulcus: in reference to the central sulcus, which separates the frontal lobe from the
  parietal lobe
• Lateral sulcus, which divides the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below
• Parieto-occipital sulcus, which separates theparietal lobes from the occipital lobes, is seen to some small extent on
  the lateral surface of the hemisphere, but mainly on the medial surface
• Trans-occipital sulcus: in reference to the occipital lobe

Functional Divisions


Researchers who study the functions of the cortex divide it into three functional categories of regions: One consists of the primary sensory areas, which receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in the thalamus. Primary sensory areas include the visual area of the occipital lobe, the auditory area in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex, and the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. A second category is the primary motor cortex, which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord.This area occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The third category consists of the remaining parts of the cortex, which are called the association areas. These areas receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex processes of perception, thought, and decision-making.

Cytoarchitecture


Different parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in different cognitive and behavioral functions. The differences show up in a number of ways: the effects of localized brain damage, regional activity patterns exposed when the brain is examined using functional imaging techniques, connectivity with subcortical areas, and regional differences in the cellular architecture of the cortex. Neuroscientists describe most of the cortex—the part they call the neocortex—as having six layers, but not all layers are apparent in all areas, and even when a layer is present, its thickness and cellular organization may vary. Scientists have constructed maps of cortical areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from Korbinian Brodmann, who split the cortex into 51 different areas and assigned each a number (many of these Brodmann areas have since been subdivided). For example, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex, Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex, and Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex.

Topography


Many of the brain areas Brodmann defined have their own complex internal structures. In a number of cases, brain areas are organized into “topographic maps”, where adjoining bits of the cortex correspond to adjoining parts of the body, or of some more abstract entity. A simple example of this type of correspondence is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue running along the anterior edge of the central sulcus, shown in the image to the right. Motor areas innervating each part of the body arise from a distinct zone, with neighboring body parts represented by neighboring zones. Electrical stimulation of the cortex at any point causes a muscle-contraction in the represented body part. This “somatotopic” representation is not evenly distributed, however. The head, for example, is represented by a region about three times as large as the zone for the entire back and trunk. The size of any zone correlates to the precision of motor control and sensory discrimination possible. The areas for the lips, fingers, and tongue are particularly large, considering the proportional size of their represented body parts. In visual areas, the maps are retinotopic—that is, they reflect the topography of the retina, the layer of light-activated neurons lining the back of the eye. In this case too the representation is uneven: the fovea—the area at the center of the visual field—is greatly overrepresented compared to the periphery. The visual circuitry in the human cerebral cortex contains several dozen distinct retinotopic maps, each devoted to analyzing the visual input stream in a particular way. The primary visual cortex (Brodmann area 17), which is the main recipient of direct input from the visual part of the thalamus, contains many neurons that are most easily activated by edges with a particular orientation moving across a particular point in the visual field. Visual areas farther downstream extract features such as color, motion, and shape. In auditory areas, the primary map is tonotopic. Sounds are parsed according to frequency (i.e., high pitch vs. low pitch) by subcortical auditory areas, and this parsing is reflected by the primary auditory zone of the cortex. As with the visual system, there are a number of tonotopic cortical maps, each devoted to analyzing sound in a particular way. Within a topographic map there can sometimes be finer levels of spatial structure. In the primary visual cortex, for example, where the main organization is retinotopic and the main responses are to moving edges, cells that respond to different edge-orientations are spatially segregated from one another.

Clinical Significance


Clinically, death is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, personality, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicular or industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant edema than by the impact itself. Stroke, caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage. Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease and motor neuron diseases are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to diminution in movement control, memory, and cognition. There are five motor neuron diseases, the most common of which is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by viruses and bacteria. Infection of the meninges, the membranes that cover the brain, can lead to meningitis. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also known as “mad cow disease”) is deadly in cattle and humans and is linked to prions. Kuru is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans, (endemic only to Papua New Guinea tribes). Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in human and some non-human species to avoid cannibalism. Viral or bacterial causes have been reported in multiple sclerosis, and are established causes of encephalopathy, and encephalomyelitis. Brain tumors both benign and malignant can form. These can either originate in the cerebral tissue or in the meninges. The most common are those growths that affect the glial cells known as gliomas. (This term has been extended to include all primary brain tumors.) Secondary cancers can form in the brain as a result of brain metastasis. Mental disorders, such as clinical depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder may involve particular patterns of neuropsychological functioning related to various aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by psychotherapy, psychiatric medication, social intervention and personal recovery work or cognitive behavioural therapy; the underlying issues and associated prognoses vary significantly between individuals. Many brain disorders are congenital, occurring during development. Tay-Sachs disease, fragile X syndrome, and Down syndrome are all linked to genetic and chromosomal errors. Many other syndromes, such as the intrinsic circadian rhythm disorders, are suspected to be congenital as well. Normal development of the brain can be altered by genetic factors, drug use,nutritional deficiencies, and infectious diseases during pregnancy. Epileptic, and non-epileptic seizures can cause cognitive impairment when the seizures become widespread, occur repeatedly in the same brain area or last for too long. Seizures can be assessed using EEG and various medical imaging techniques. They can sometimes be treated using anticonvulsant drugs and certain neurosurgical procedures and auxiliary treatments may also be used.

Effects of brain damage


A key source of information about the function of brain regions is the effects of damage to them. In humans, strokes have long provided a “natural laboratory” for studying the effects of brain damage. Most strokes result from a blood clot lodging in the brain and blocking the local blood supply, causing damage or destruction of nearby brain tissue: the range of possible blockages is very wide, leading to a great diversity of stroke symptoms. Analysis of strokes is limited by the fact that damage often crosses into multiple regions of the brain, not along clear-cut borders, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions. Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) are mini-strokes that can cause sudden dimming or loss of vision (including amaurosis fugax), speech impairment ranging from slurring to dysarthria oraphasia, and mental confusion. But unlike a stroke, the symptoms of a TIA can resolve within a few minutes or 24 hours. Brain injury may still occur in a TIA lasting only a few minutes.A silent stroke or silent cerebral infarct (SCI) differs from a TIA in that there are no immediately observable symptoms. An SCI may still cause long lasting neurological dysfunction affecting such areas as mood, personality, and cognition. An SCI often occurs before or after a TIA or major stroke.

Electrodes and magnetic fields


By placing electrodes on the scalp, it is possible to record the summed electrical activity of the cortex using a methodology known as electroencephalography (EEG). EEG records average neuronal activity from the cerebral cortex and can detect changes in activity over large areas but with low sensitivity for sub-cortical activity. EEG recordings are sensitive enough to detect tiny electrical impulses lasting only a few milliseconds. Most EEG devices have good temporal resolution, but low spatial resolution. Electrodes can also be placed directly on the surface of the brain (usually during surgical procedures that require removal of part of the skull). This technique, called electrocorticography(ECoG), offers finer spatial resolution than electroencephalography, but is very invasive. In addition to measuring the electric field directly via electrodes placed over the skull, it is possible to measure the magnetic field that the brain generates using a method known as magnetoencephalography (MEG). This technique also has good temporal resolution like EEG but with much better spatial resolution. The greatest disadvantage of MEG is that, because the magnetic fields generated by neural activity are very subtle, the neural activity must be relatively close to the surface of the brain to detect its magnetic field. MEGs can only detect the magnetic signatures of neurons located in the depths of cortical folds (sulci) that have dendrites oriented in a way that produces a field.

Imaging


Computed tomography of human brain, from base of the skull to top, taken with intravenous contrast medium Neuroscientists, along with researchers from allied disciplines, study how the human brain works. Such research has expanded considerably in recent decades. The “Decade of the Brain”, an initiative of the United States Government in the 1990s, is considered to have marked much of this increase in research. It has been followed in 2013 by the BRAIN Initiative. Information about the structure and function of the human brain comes from a variety of experimental methods. Most information about the cellular components of the brain and how they work comes from studies of animal subjects, using techniques described in the brain article. Some techniques, however, are used mainly in humans, and therefore are described here.

Structural and functional imaging


There are several methods for detecting brain activity changes using three-dimensional imaging of local changes in blood flow. The older methods are SPECT and PET, which depend on injection of radioactive tracers into the bloodstream. A newer method, functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI), has considerably better spatial resolution and involves no radioactivity.[44] Using the most powerful magnets currently available, fMRI can localize brain activity changes to regions as small as one cubic millimeter. The downside is that the temporal resolution is poor: when brain activity increases, the blood flow response is delayed by 1–5 seconds and lasts for at least 10 seconds. Thus, fMRI is a very useful tool for learning which brain regions are involved in a given behavior, but gives little information about the temporal dynamics of their responses. A major advantage for fMRI is that, because it is non-invasive, it can readily be used on human subjects. Another new non-invasive functional imaging method is functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

Subliminal Perception : Just How Fast Is The Brain?


Subliminal perception has long been a hot topic. The idea that something (generally an image) could appear and disappear before us so quickly that it escapes conscious perception, and yet affect us subconsciously, is a fascinating (and scary) one. Psychologists and neuroscientists are fairly skeptical of any grand or sinister claims for the power of subliminal advertising or propaganda, but on the other hand, many of them use the technique as a research tool. So what’s the absolute speed limit of the brain? What’s the minimum time that a stimulus needs to appear in order to trigger a measurable brain response? In a new study, Swiss researchers Holger Sperdin and colleagues say that they’ve detected neural activity in response to images presented for just 250microseconds – that’s 1/4 of a millisecond, or 1/4000-th of a second. Sperdin et al. say that these ultra-brief stimuli are undetectable on a conscious level, yet still evoke a brain response – albeit a small one. Here’s the paper: Submillisecond Unmasked Subliminal Visual Stimuli Evoke Electrical Brain Responses. The authors recorded brain activity using EEG and presented the brief stimuli using a device they invented called the LCD Tachistoscope.



It’s built around two LCD monitors and a mirror. Sperdin et al. published the design last year. A normal screen just isn’t fast enough to present stimuli at microsecond durations. (Other tachistoscopes exist.) While the apparatus was complex, the stimulus Sperdin et al. used was a simple checkerboard pattern of black and white squares. The researchers presented the stimuli for 250, 500 and 1000 microseconds. These are, respectively: consciously undetectable, only sometimes detectable, and easy to spot. Here’s what happened. The black lines are the visual evoked EEG signal in response to the checkerboard; the red lines were a control stimulus:



Both the 500 and 1000 microsecond checkerboards clearly evoked a neural response which began roughly 80 milliseconds after the checkerboard appeared. The 250 microsecond stimulus did so too, albeit marginally. (Note that the graph’s scale varies.) The bottom half of the diagram shows the statistical significance of the difference between the brain responses to the checkerboard and the control stimuli. For the 250 microsecond stimuli, only a few short periods were significant. Still, even if the effect of a 250 microsecond stimulus on the brain isn’t huge, I find it pretty impressive that the 500 microsecond stimuli can evoke such marked neural responses. The brain is able to detect a flash of black and white that occupies just one two thousandth part of one second. This doesn’t mean, of course, that we could process a message that only appeared for such a brief time, but still, it’s rather cool.